Layers of History: Basilica di San Clemente
Architecture 533
Signature Buildings in Geopolitical Context
6/15/2009
The significance of San Clemente, its importance to locals and the evolution of its site over time.
The Basilica di San Clemente has undergone a variety of transitions over its history, spanning two-thousand years, from a house to a temple to a church, but the reason behind the continued re-use of the site and its structures is due to the significance the locals held with the site. The original use of the site was utterly forgotten due to multiple waves of devastation, but the knowledge that the site itself had importance remained in the collective memory. Essentially, until the rediscovery of the ruins in the 18th century, no one knew what the exact history of the site and building was and only knew that it was tied to Saint Clement. It was simply this connection which spurred people to come to the site for worship and protect what was there.
Significance of the Site
Image 1 - The San Clemente neighbor-
hood with the Basilica indicated to
the right and the Coliseum on the left.
The Basilica is located on the east side of Rome between two hills, the Esquiline and Coelian. It is roughly centered along Via di San Giovanni in Laterano connecting the Coliseum and the Basilica of St. John Lateran. Even though it is only about two blocks away from the Coliseum, few people actually visit the church, though it has become more popular in recent years. The church is managed by the Irish Province of Dominicans, who came in 1667 after Protestant England began persecuting Catholics in Ireland. Visiting San Clemente is a pleasant experience because of its lack of crowding, reasonable entrance fare of only €3, and un-sanitized viewing experience. Unfortunately with many sites in Rome, the viewings of the sites are tightly controlled and tours are frequently given by guides only, which in reality detracts from the experience. Alternately, San Clemente elects for a self-guided approach where the excavations are all open for free exploration. Recently Eugenio Bettinelli designed a lighting system for the lower levels using tiny LED point lights to subtly illuminate the walls and floors without over-lighting the areas and achieves a wonderful romanticized feeling of being underground while providing safety for the visitor and security for the artifacts (Zunino, 239-245).
Image 2 - Saint Clement leading mass
depicted in a fresco in the Lower
Basilica of San Clemente.
As with many Roman Catholic churches, San Clemente exists to honor a saint: Saint Clement. Saint Clement is a lesser-known saint and has few churches in his honor, although he was a significant figure in early Christian history. Saint Clement served as the Bishop of Rome, otherwise known as the Pope, from approximately AD 92 until 99, though the dates are estimates and he could have begun as early as AD 88. Saint Clement was the first, second, or third Pope following Saint Peter who was the founder of the Christian church. The precise succession of early Popes is unknown as records are incomplete and conflicting. Unquestionably, Saint Clement was a contemporary of Saint Peter and witnessed Peter's crucifixion which he revealed in his Letter to the Corinthians: "Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death… Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him" (Chapman).
Image 3 - Saint Clement's miracle of dis-
covering water while imprisoned in Crimea.
The life of Saint Clement is not well known. Tradition holds that Emporer Trajan imprisoned him between AD 99 and 101, and Saint Clement lead a ministry among the prisoners until his execution in 101 (Chapman). The traditional story of Saint Clement was that while in excile in Crimea by Trajan he was sent to work in a marble quarry and convereted his fellow prisoners to Christianity. Upon learning that water had to be brought from six miles away, Clement led a prayer that a source of water should be found nearby. Following the prayer a lamb appeared indicating the place where he should dig for water. Saint Clement struck the rock, and water flowed forth and convinced the other inmates. Clement's act of bringing together the prisoners and the spead of the water legend resulted in 75 new churches.
Image 4 - Saint Clemente being executed
by tying him to an anchor and casting him
into the Black Sea.
The surge of faith displeased Trajan who had Saint Clement was executed by having an anchor tied around his neck and thrown in the Black Sea. After his drowning, the tide receded two miles, spontaneously revealing a shrine which contained the martyr's bones and became an annual occurrence (de Voragine). Naturally, none of the accounts can be verified in historical accounts, nor can the divine shrine be found (the one today is a replica). The earliest records of the legend by Rufinus are dated around AD 400, over two hundred years later. The story was later expanded to include a miracle involving a child, who was lost at sea during a prayer at the shrine, reappeared a year later unscathed and considered another miracle by Saint Clement (de Voragine).
Corroboration of the legend of Saint Clement occurred in around 861-868, when Saint Cyril visited Crimea and discovered a number of bones in a mound along the sea, but also an anchor. Because of the presence of the anchor, the bones were strongly believed to be those of Saint Clement, so Saint Cyril brought the relics back to Rome and placed them with the bones of Saint Ignatius of Antioch in the altar in the Basilica de San Clemente. Saint Cyril was also later buried in the church, but was later lost and rediscovered in the 1960s. Saint Clement's feast day is November 23, the anniversary of his martyrdom, and each year the relics of Clement, Ignatius and Cyril are removed from the altar and ceremoniously paraded around the neighborhood (Chapman).
The connection to Saint Clement on the site of the Bascilica is very important to local residents. The 'Cult of Saints' – the practice of venerating Saints – is popular among Roman Catholics in Italy and the most frequent way to recognize a saint is to pray to their relics. In the case of Saint Clement, people come from around the neighborhood and the country to pray to the bones held in the altar. San Clemente receives some pilgrims, though it is not nearly as popular as nearby Santa Maria Maggiore or Saint Peters in Rome. Tourists, who could be considered modern pilgrims, also opt for more popular attractions than San Clemente. Consequently, the celebration of Saint Clement and the importance of the Basilica in his honor are held primarily with the local residents and this importance of the building and the connection of the site to their Saint. Locals have gone to great lengths to preserve and maintain the basilica at first because it was known traditionally as the home of Saint Clement, and continued recently when discoveries verified that the site on which San Clemente sits is indeed the home of Saint Clement (Mullooly, 55-67).
History of the Site and its Buildings
Image 5 - Exploded section through the
levels of San Clemente showing the
Roman House (bottom), Lower Basilica
(middle) and Upper Basilica (top).
The Basilica of San Clemente is not a single building but consists of four separate structures above and below grade which have existed in different forms throughout its two-thousand-year history. Working from the present to the past, and from the top to the bottom, exists a 12th century or Upper Basilica, a 4th century Lower Basilica, a Mithraic Temple and a Roman House. Like tree rings, each layer represents a period of time and a transition of the site from various usages and religions.
Image 6 - Exterior of San Clemente.
The Upper Basilica is the structure seen from the street. From the outside it is a simple, sparsely decorated building which doesn't look strikingly different from other buildings in Rome. The basilica has a formal entrance adjacent to the enclosed courtyard, but most people enter from the side through a 14th century portal. The interior is arranged in a traditional three-aisle basilica structure with an apse at one end. The main aisle is two stories, with the side aisles a single story with an arcade of columns. Many of the columns and capitals are in fact spolia, mainly from the earlier church. The church is dominated by an intricate gilded apse mosaic, and also has beautiful marble tile patterns in the floor. In contrast with the floor ceiling, the walls and columns are relatively sparse. Historians regard San Clemente as an excellent example of early Christian church architecture because it faithfully recreated the layout of the Lower Basilica which existed previously on the site and reuses marble pieces from the earlier church in the Upper Basilica (Boyle, et al, 35-55).
Image 7 - Upper Basilica plan.
Construction occurred from 1099-1120, but there have been several modifications since then. Beginning in the 1700s, Carlo Stefano Fontana, nephew of famous Carlo Fontana, undertook the restoration and improvement of the basilica. Pope Clement XI comissioned Fontana to repair and update the neglected building. A new façade of white marble was added to the non-desript front starting in 1715, and a gilded coffered ceiling to match the apse mosaic was started in 1716. Both projects, as well as general restorations, were completed in 1719. Pope Clement XI comissioned many restorations to many early Christian churches, stating that, "all parts which breathe sacred Antiquity should be preserved and refitted into the whole," a very contemporary ideal (Noach, 309).
Image 8 - Lower Basilica plan.
The Lower Basilica exists immediately below the floor of the Upper Basilica, and is used as its crypt today. The Upper Basilica is a recreation of the Lower, so it unsurprisingly has a main aisles flanked with two side aisles and an apse at one end. The Upper church is a virtual mirror of the Lower, though it is slightly smaller than the original. To support the Upper Basilica, the arcade of the Lower Basilica was filled in with rubble walls (Lloyd, 63-76). However, these rubble walls were not built right up to the columns, but rather a space was left to create an area of poché, almost accenting the distinction of the column. However, for some unknown reason the entire Lower Basilica was filled with rubble and abandoned. The original construction date of the Lower Basilica is unclear. Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313, the recognition of Christianity, lead to a rapid building of churches so construction began sometime after that date. Archeologists pin the construction date around 385 but it likely was a gradual process (Marcantonio). Following the edict of Theodosius in 394, which outlawed the practice of paganism, the early church was expanded into adjoining parts of the Roman House as Christian worship was no longer a clandestine activity. The Lower Basilica was destroyed in 1084 when Robert Guiscard of the Normans sacked the city and burned the church to the ground (Lloyd, 76-79). The Lower Basilica contains several frescos and mosaics – some of the oldest and best preserved in the world – and a baptismal font dating from the 6th century which was one of the first. Additionally, writings on the wall are the earliest recorded of the Italian language (Noach, 313).
Image 9 - Mithraic Temple plan (highlighted).
Christianity was not the only religion practiced on the site, and nor was it the first. The existence of the 2nd century Mithraic Temple in front of and underneath the present apse reveals that the site had importance to the followers of Mithraism, a mysterious pagan religion pre-dating Christianity. Mithraism was popular among the Roman Military from the 1st to 4th centuries, but its origins stretch back to Iran and evidence suggests it is an offshoot of Zoroastrianism. The most sacred place of any Mithraic Temple was the mithreaum which resembled a cave and was dark and windowless. Benches lined the walls and an altar was in the center of the vaulted space. The altar typically features carvings of the god Mithras killing the sacred bull. Unfortunately, some of the symbolism is unclear because there are no remaining written records of Mithraism and only a handful of archeological evidence (Arendzen). Many of the temples were destroyed following Theodosius' edict in 394 leaving even less evidence. What San Clemente's Mithraic Temple does show is that it was constructed sometime during the 2nd century as an addition to the Roman House. It was used until 385 at the latest when the Lower Bascilica underwent expansion, but it may have been unused for a while before (Lloyd, 103-111). The fact that the Christian Lower Basilica was built next to, rather than on top of, suggests that there was a conscious effort to preserve the Temple by abandoning it and sealing the entrance, rather than obliterating it with the new construction. The coexistence and perhaps preservation of Mithraism in the face of Christianity may indicate a gradual conversion between the two religions. In fact, several scholars suggest that Christianity borrowed several concepts from Mithraism including the birthday of Jesus Christ, December 25th, also happened to be the birthday of Mithras and coincided with the winter solstice as well as the concept of a virgin birth. The Apostle Paul wrote in his letter to the Corinthians that they (the clergy) were, "willing to adapt to all people," which presumes to encompass the followers of Mithras. Unfortunately, the followers of Mithras and their temples were shown particular brutality under Theodosius' and later emperors which makes the preservation of the Mithraic Temple at San Clemente quite special (Britannica).
Image 10 - Roman House plan (partially
unexcavated).
The very foundations of San Clemente sit upon a Roman House, or insula. An insula was a series of connected houses surrounding an interior courtyard. This compound was often owned by an extended family, and in the case of San Clemente primary ownership is attributed to Titus Flavius Clemens (Lloyd, 12-15). The earliest walls date from the 1st century BC and may have been part of a defensive wall or large building, as they are unnecessarily well-built for a residential building. The remainder of the complex was completed in the first century, with the later expansions converting the House into the Lower Basilica, at which time the remains of the house not needed for the basilica were filled in (Mullooly, 199-201). One room of the House even contains running water sourced from a lost aqueduct and drains into the Cloaca Maxima, or main sewer, under the Coliseum. Clemens is obviously very similar to Clement, and this association has extremely significant implications. While the connection has not been positively verified, it is logical to assume that Titus Flavius Clemens was the same person as Saint Clement, the pope and martyr. The site was believed to be the traditional home of the saint, and this belief that the church was Saint Clement's house made it important. Roman documentation reveals that Titus Flavius Clemens was a Roman senator and commander, which may explain the connection to Mithraism due to its popularity in the military (Boyle, et al 121-156). Alternatively, Saint Clement may have been a member of Titus Flavius Clemens's family, or even a servant. The insular complex is thought to extend under the modern street and other buildings, so future excavations may reveal more information (Mullooly, 388-404). Concrete records are utterly absent to verify any conjecture but clearly the connection between the Roman House, the site, and Saint Clement are strong.
Image 11 - Father Joseph Mullooly.
Until the 1800s there was no knowledge of structures below the Upper Basilica. While it was documented that the Lower Basilica was destroyed in 1084, and that the marble altar and other pieces were salvaged, the assumption was that the pervious structures were completely demolished (Mullooly, 67-73). The fact that not only does the Lower Basilica exist in an appreciable form, but so do the Mithraic Temple and Roman House, is truly remarkable. Excavations beneath the Upper Basilica began in 1857 and were undertaken almost solely by Father Joseph Mullooly, and Irish Catholic priest and amateur archeologist. Progress went slowly but a few early discoveries encouraged more digging. In all, Joseph Mullooly and his assistants removed 130,000 carts of rubble from beneath the church, all by hand. Shoring was required in some places to keep the Upper Basilica stable, but mostly the debris came out with little effort. Mullooly detailed his efforts in his "Saint Clement, Pope and Martyr, and His Basilica in Rome" published first in 1873. The book's 500 pages detail the life of Saint Clement and chronicle Mullooly excavations. Mullooly unfortunately is not self-reflective and does not say specifically what prompted him to begin excavating, however he does indicate that the Irish Dominicans suspected that the Lower Basilica remained, at least in part, beneath the existing church by studying the variations in the topography of the area and noticing the tops of columns and arches were embedded in the lower part of walls, instead of the upper parts where they would normally be present. Mullooly cut through a wall and revealed a vaulted passage and another removal revealed fragments of frescos giving Mullooly validation for the expedition and he continued uncovering the area with earnest. Without a plan or map, Mullooly dug in a straight line until he hit a wall, then dug along the wall until he hit another, and continued in a similar fashion. What he uncovered in the Lower Basilica was an approximate mirror of the church above with the additional supporting walls. The columns of the Lower Basilica remained in their proper positions, but varied widely in design and color, so much so that few matched each other suggesting these 4th century columns were actually from even older structures (Mullooly, 180-198).
Image 12 - The lost aqueduct supplying
water to the Roman House.
As Mullooly worked around the Lower Basilica he discovered a wall of high quality Imperial Roman brick along the north side and, understanding that this wall would have dated much earlier than the Lower Basilica, concentrated digging efforts there. His hunch paid off, as several feet below the floor he discovered a stairway, all dating to the Roman period, descending downward to yet another level. Upon finding a 4th century wall at the bottom of the stair which didn't match the Roman brick surrounds, he removed it an in 1870 discovered the Mithraic Temple (Mullooly 228-232). Mullooly provides some conjecture as to why each layer was preserved by suggesting that Mithraism and Christianity were somehow connected between the 2nd and 4th century, and he asserts that Mithraism copied Christian traditions and the Mithraeum post-dates the Christian portions, although modern evidence suggests the opposite (Britannica). However, Mullooly did comment on how various people during different times have built specifically on the site of this Roman House and how the frescos, in particular, were well preserved leading him to believe they were intentionally buried. The excavations at San Clemente were the life's work of Father Mullooly, and to show appreciation he was buried in a tomb in the Lower Basilica below the altar on the floor above (Coligio San Clemente).
Image 13 - Bettinelli's minimalist
lighting design.
Following Joseph Mullooly's work, Father Louis Nolan took over the excavations. He focused mostly on the Roman Houses which had not yet been fully excavated. Nolan removed two additional feet of soil, revealing a Roman brick floor. He also uncovered the water source, which quickly became a problem as it started flooding the lower levels. In response Nolan headed a drastic measure in 1912 to drain the site by digging back from the Cloaca Maxima to drain the site. After tunneling more than 700 feet they were able to connect and siphon away the constant flow of water into the sewer (Nolan, 27-58). Excavation work has not advanced in many years, though distant plans focus on removing the rest of the debris from the Roman Houses which may expose more artifacts. The most recent changes occurred in 2005 when a modern lighting system designed by Eugenio Bettinelli was installed which displays the ruins magnificently (Zunino, 239-245).
The Basilica di San Clemente's Evolution
Image 14 - Nolli's map of Rome showing
San Clemente in the 18th century.
There are two primary reasons why much of the site remains intact today; first; the frequent waves of destruction lead to periods of rapid changes; and second, when these changes were made there seemed to be an attempt to mimic or preserve what was once there.
It is estimated that a foot of rubble builds up for every hundred years. This is clearly evident in Rome, which has been sacked, burned, torn down and rebuilt countless times during its more than 2,500 year history. The Pantheon, for instance, sits on its 27 BC foundation, while the modern road and buildings passing behind and next to the monument are elevated 20 feet or more. San Clemente has undergone a similar vertical transformation over the centuries, but unlike the Pantheon where the original foundation elevation was preserved by retaining walls, the new San Clemente was built on top of old buildings using them as foundations. This exists throughout Rome, where medieval buildings were built on the sturdy Roman walls, then the rubble was smoothed out and a new road built. As a result, many excavations in Rome reveal ruins. San Clemente takes the concept of using old structures as foundations for new buildings to a whole new level, as it was done not once, not twice, not three times, but the building has undergone four iterations, each built upon the last, and the four levels have been mostly preserved.
Image 15 - Map showing the two hills
(shaded) with San Clemente
(highlighted) between.
The build-up of debris around San Clemente is particularly evident, and in some places the street level has been raised as much as 60 feet, though it is only about 30 feet adjacent to the site. The site is an uphill climb from the Coliseum, but it has not always been as steep. Originally it was a relatively level area between the Esquiline and Coelian hills, but the area was filled in with the casualties of many waves of destruction. Without modern equipment, the rubble could not be moved very far, so it was dumped into the most convenient area: the valley (Nolan, 17-21). Nero's inferno in AD 64, invasions and sacks by many Germanic tribes, several earthquakes, the Normans in 1064 and many others have contributed to this rubble pile. San Clemente was affected each time, but instead of demolishing its damaged structures they were instead filled, leveled, and built anew producing the layers described above. This solution to the problem of ruined buildings was the most obvious and practical one practiced for centuries throughout Rome and other cities. The relatively frequent waves of destruction provide us today with a wonderful view of these 'snapshots' of the past preserved in each layer. Without the damage, buildings would be imperceptibly changed over time and would be too complicated to decipher, but rapid destruction and rebuilding creates stark transitions literally making the layers of history visible. Each time, however, the site at San Clemente was rebuilt, and in the case of the Upper Basilica, was built to match. Even though the buildings were in ruins, the site was sacred and was preserved with another church.
Image 16 - The 4th century columns were
preserved by the 12th century construction.
While the method of cleaning up following damage seems reckless and haphazard, there also appears to be a conscious effort of preservation at the San Clemente site. Contrasting the sometimes violent repression of pagan religions after 394, the Mithraic Temple was bricked up, seemingly with care, and intentionally hidden or forgotten. The altar was not smashed, and the wall paintings were not graffitied. Prior to this period, the ends of Mithraism and the beginning of Christianity seem to become intertwined globally, but also locally at San Clemente where there appears to be a simultaneous worship of both faiths. As time favored Christianity, the past seemed to be recognized as being important and extents to preserve it were taken. Following this period with the expansion of the Lower Basilica, the Roman Houses in which it grew out of were again buried and forgotten about but were not vandalized. Many years later in the 12th century, the Upper Basilica was built specifically to recreate the feeling of the Lower one. Contemporary building practices could have enabled construction of a much larger, taller, and more richly decorated church, but instead the people opted to duplicate what had existed because the form was important as well as the location. To further enhance the rebuilding, rather than a new building, elements such as the marble altar, columns, and other remains and artifacts of the Lower Basilica were recovered and reused in the Upper. Shoring up the lower foundations was done seemingly with care as to separate the columns with a small space and accent their individuality. These acts of preservation suggest that the physical form and history of the building were also important to the users of San Clemente throughout history. Perhaps they anticipated a time in which the lower levels would be revealed and the importance of each time could be appreciated. However, it seems more likely that the builders over time respected the past and endeavored to preserve as much of it as they could because of its connection to Saint Clement.
At San Clemente traditions and history are what make the site significant. Little proof exists of who Saint Clement really was, and for centuries no one knew that the Roman house of Titus Flavius Clemens actually existed, and still existed, under their feet, but this did not deter locals from regarding the ground as sacred. The place also has importance because of the variety of uses it had, from a home to a pagan temple to an underground Christian sect and then two basilicas. Throughout history the site remained important to a variety of different people and it is this implied importance has seemed to drive a tendency to preserve and restore the architecture rather than build completely anew. The connection of the church buildings to Saint Clement, who was probably the same person as Titus Flavius Clemens, was verified by the excavations of Joseph Mullooly and Louis Nolan and connects the significance of the site the locals have always held with archaeological evidence. Pope Clement XI once stated that, "This ancient church has withstood the ravages of the centuries," and recognized its unique history. The Basilica di San Clemente serves as amazing examples of Roman, Mithraic and Early Christian history on a single site and has probably not yet given up all of its secrets, making the importance of the site continue to grow.
Image 18 - Interior of the Lower Basilica.
Image 17 - Interior of the Upper Basilica.
Image 20 - Interior of the Roman Houses.
Image 19 - Interior of the Mithraic Temple.
Image 22 - Detailed Plan of the Lower
Basilica showing flooring and baptismal
font (BB).
Image 21 - Detailed plan of the Roman
Houses and Mithraic Temple (M1).
Bibliography
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Boyle, Leonard E. A short guide to St. Clement's, Rome. 4th Ed. Rome: Collegio San Clemente, 1972.
Boyle, Leonard E.; Kane, Eileen M. C.; Guidobaldi, Federico. San Clemente Miscellany II: Art & Archaeology. Rome: Apud S. Clementem, 1978.
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Barclay-Lloyd, Joan E. The Building History of the Medieval Church of S. Clemente in Rome. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. Vol. 45, no. 3, p. 197-223. September, 1986.
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Videos:
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Image Credits
Front - msuROMEstudio. San Clemente. Flickr. Available at http://www.flickr.com/ photos/27793727@N08/2617476741/. Retrieved March 22, 2009.
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18 - Personal Photo. September 15, 2006.
19 - Personal Photo. September 15, 2006.
20 - Personal Photo. September 15, 2006.
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Back - Personal Photo. September 15, 2006.
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